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Animals in Scientific Research
Science of the Future - Basic science research and technology
Basic science research can be interpreted as research in chemistry and physics, or as research on animals. Research in chemistry and physics has been the basis for many, if not most, of the great breakthroughs in medicine. As well as laying the groundwork for much of biology, research in chemistry and physics has led to much of the technology we enjoy.
Technology has been the foundation of virtually every revolutionary medical advance—and not just since the 20th century. About 1590, the Dutch spectacle-maker Zacharias Janssen discovered the principle of the compound microscope; even today, the microscope remains one of the most important tools in science, and a new robotic microscope is even being used to track changes in cells over time as genes are expressed and the resulting proteins go into action.
In 1851, the invention of the ophthalmoscope enabled physicians to see inside the eye for the first time. In 1854, the development of the laryngoscope allowed better visualization of the larynx. The otoscope, which amplifies examination inside the ear, was designed in 1860.
In the 1900s, technology continued to take the practice of medicine to a new level with such remarkable developments as:
- Nuclear medicine, which is now routinely used for evaluating cancers and hormonal levels of the lungs, endocrine organs and kidneys prior to and after surgery. Nuclear therapy is employed to treat hyperthyroidism and other diseases.
- The tonometer, the device that puffs air against your eye to measure intraocular pressure, allows early diagnosis of glaucoma.
- Microscopic surgeries, which allow surgeons to reattach severed digits and limbs and save many people from lifestyle-changing injuries. The microscope is also used for the common procedure of placing tubes in a child’s ears in order to decrease ear infections and hearing loss. Microscopic discectomy, the removal of a herniated disc in the back, is accomplished with the microscope. The microscope is also used in neurosurgery to allow removal of tumors without damaging delicate nerves. Microvascular surgery allows surgeons to work in very small areas, with minimal destruction of viable tissue. It is invaluable in some cancer surgeries allowing patients with advanced head and neck cancer to use some part of their larynx saving their ability to speak.
- The endoscope allows many procedures that would have required major surgery to be performed non-surgically. This instrument is commonly used to scrutinize the upper GI tract for ulcers or cancer and the colon for early cancers. A laser can be placed on the end of the endoscope and passed into the GI tract via the mouth or rectum. Cancer cells are thus identified because they reflect the laser light differently than normal cells.
- The laparoscope, like the endoscope, allows surgical procedures to be performed less invasively. Appendectomy, cholecystectomy, hysterectomy, hernia repair, kidney removal, and other surgeries were once only possible with a large incision and a prolonged recovery. Laparoscopes allow surgeons to make several very small incisions and insert instruments through them, thus decreasing the wound size, the likelihood of infection, and other complications as well as decreasing recovery time.
- Tissue implants, including artificial eyes, heart valves, penile prosthesis, skin expanders used in order to harvest more skin for skin grafts, artificial blood vessels, pacemakers, and other advances.
- Acoustic microscopy, an extension of ultrasound, demonstrates internal conditions using sound waves without requiring dyes.
- Vacuum-assisted closure devices are used to prevent skin necrosis from snakebite.
- Electronic hearing implants stimulate the auditory nerve, which sends hearing impulses to the brain.
- Computerized canes operate in conjunction with sonar to help the blind avoid obstacles and walk without being guided.
- Impervious wound-edge protectors safeguard against postoperative wound infection.
- Virtual reality flexible sigmoidoscopes help medical residents and other physicians train for live patient examinations.
- Cryoablation uses extreme cold, is used to kill pain-causing nerves and to kill cancerous tissue.
- Time-reversed acoustics employs a reversal of sound waves to destroy gall bladder and kidney stones.
Technology has revolutionized one of the most commonly performed general surgical procedures: the repair of inguinal hernias. Today, prosthetic materials are used in the repair of these hernias. Previously, the hernia was simply sewn back together. The improvement was frequently only temporary and the hernia often recurred. Polypropylene mesh, polyester mesh, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene mesh, and polyester and absorbable hydrophilic collagen film are used today, providing better results than traditional repairs and decreasing the rate of recurrence. Mesh repairs also result in less disability and a quicker return to normal activity due to less tension on the muscles.
Technology has overcome a major drawback of biopsy methods for detecting cancer of the uterus. A simple ultrasound scan can now detect uterine cancers with 96 percent accuracy, whereas traditional biopsy methods sometimes miss the cancer because it samples only one area.
The study of the human brain and diseases of the brain is also being improved dramatically through technology. The combination of magneto-encephalography with MRI, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) will enable researchers to learn more about schizophrenia, epilepsy, stroke, autism, and brain damage from chemotherapy in children, through brain mapping. Magnetoencephalography provides millisecond time resolution and identifies the source of neural activity, while fMRI provides high resolution of functional areas of the brain.
A study in which physicians were given a list of 30 medical advances and asked to rank them in order of importance underscores the power of technology in improving patient care. Of the nine examples of technological innovations listed among the 30 medical advances, the physicians ranked eight of them in the top 15, and three of them in the top five (see Table). Although arguably technology played a role in each of these advances, pure technology received a lion’s share of accolades.
The author of the study, Victor R. Fuchs, PhD, Professor Emeritus, Stanford University, noted that the study results might have far-reaching implications for expanding the criteria for quality assessment and shifting the allocation of research and development funds. He said the most surprising finding was “the extent to which the leading innovations were an outgrowth of the physical sciences (physics, engineering, and computer science) rather than disciplines traditionally associated with the biomedical sciences.”
Ranking of medical advances by physicians. Advances made possible mainly due to advances in technology in the area of physical as opposed to life sciences are noted with an asterisk.
- MRI and CT scanners*
- ACE inhibitors
- Balloon angioplasty*
- Statins
- Mammography*
- Coronary artery bypass graft*
- Proton pump inhibitors and H2 blockers
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and new non-SSRI antidepressants
- Cataract extraction and lens implant*
- Hip and knee replacement*
- Ultrasonography and echocardiography*
- Gastrointestinal endoscopy*
- Inhaled steroids for asthma
- Laparoscopic surgery*
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and COX-2 inhibitors
- Cardiac enzymes
- Fluoroquinolones
- New hypoglycemic agents
- HIV testing and treatment
- Tamoxifen
- Prostate-specific antigen testing
- Long-acting and local opioid anesthetics
- Helicobacter pylori testing and treatment
- Bone densitometry*
- Third-generation cephalosporins
- Calcium channel blockers
- Intravenous conscious sedation
- Sildenafil (Viagra)
- Nonsedating antihistamines
- Bone marrow transplant
As Aaron Fenster of the Robarts Research Institute, wrote in Trends in Biotechnology:
In the past decade, we have witnessed unprecedented advances in fields such as molecular biology, medical imaging, computer technology, and computational techniques. Although advances in each field have provided exciting new insights and capabilities, it is at the interface between these fields that revolutionary advances are being made. In particular, the post-genomic era is providing opportunities for the convergence of these fields, enabling novel imaging technologies and techniques to play a significant role in drug discovery, functional genomics and measurement of pharmacokinetics and dynamics in target tissues.
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